TL;DR

  • Early Homo species developed sophisticated multi-component tools well before modern humans, including hafted axes, composite spears, and complex adhesives.
  • The oldest hafted axes (46,000-49,000 years old) come from Australia, challenging Eurocentric assumptions about technological innovation.
  • Spear technology dates back 400,000-500,000 years, with both wooden and stone-tipped variants used by Heidelbergensis and Neanderthals.
  • Bow and arrow technology emerged in Africa around 70,000 years ago, giving modern humans a significant hunting advantage.
  • Symbolic tools like engraved artifacts and personal ornaments appeared by 500,000 years ago, with some attributed to Homo erectus.
  • Complex woodworking and structural construction occurred as early as 476,000 years ago at Kalambo Falls, Zambia.
  • These innovations highlight sophisticated planning, material knowledge, and cognitive abilities in early human ancestors.

Earliest Complex Tools of the Genus Homo#

Early members of the genus Homo developed a variety of complex tools well before the advent of modern humans. These tools often involved multiple components or sophisticated fabrication techniques beyond simple stone flakes. Below, we review key categories of early complex tools – both hunting-related and non-hunting – including their descriptions, estimated invention dates, pivotal archaeological discoveries, and scholarly debates about their interpretation.

Hafted Axes (Composite Axes with Handles)#

Hafted axes are cutting tools made by attaching a sharpened stone head to a wooden handle, creating a compound implement. This design greatly increases the tool’s leverage and impact force compared to a hand-held stone alone, but requires complex construction (shaping a durable handle and securing the stone with bindings or adhesives). The earliest known hafted axes date to the late Pleistocene. A tiny polished stone fragment from Windjana Gorge, Australia, has been identified as part of a ground-edge axe used 46,000–49,000 years ago, implying a stone head fitted to a handle. This find is the oldest evidence of handled axes worldwide, predating other examples by thousands of years. Another Australian site in Arnhem Land yielded a ground-edge axe dated to ~35,000 years ago, and in Japan, independent invention of axes is documented around 38,000 years ago (MIS3, early Upper Paleolithic). In most of Africa and Eurasia, however, stone axes with handles do not appear until much later – often with the spread of agriculture in the Holocene (after ~10,000 years ago).

Key Discoveries:

  • Windjana Gorge (Australia) – Polished axe fragment, 46–49 kya, oldest hafted axe known.
  • Jawoyn Country (Australia) – Complete ground-edge axes, 35.4Β±0.4 kya, among earliest globally.
  • Japanese Archipelago – Edge-ground axes in Upper Paleolithic layers, ~38–32 kya, coinciding with first modern humans in Japan.
  • Neolithic Europe – Widespread use of stone axes with wooden hafts ~10–7 kya, as part of agricultural toolkits (e.g. felling trees).

Debates and Interpretation: The surprisingly early Australian axes have challenged the Eurocentric assumption that complex tools arose first in Europe. Researchers infer that innovative toolmaking arose wherever needed: for instance, early Australians likely invented axes to chop hardwoods in a bamboo-poor environment. In contrast, the apparent absence of hafted axes in older African and Eurasian sites may be due to preservation bias (wooden handles rarely survive) or true technological delay. Notably, hafting technology itself – attaching stone tools to handles – existed long before formal “axes.” Neanderthals and other archaic humans were hafting stone flakes to wood by at least 200,000 years ago, as shown by birch-tar adhesive residues on Middle Pleistocene tools. However, these earlier hafted tools were typically scrapers or spear points, not the ground or polished chopping axes seen later. Whether any pre-sapiens groups made axe-like hatchets is unclear; so far, the consensus is that true hafted axes (with heavy heads and polished or ground edges) are an innovation of Homo sapiens in the late Pleistocene.

Spears (Thrusting and Throwing Spears)#

Spears are among the oldest hunting weapons attributed to Homo, consisting of a sharpened pole or a pole tipped with a stone or bone point. They represent a significant leap in complexity and hunting strategy – enabling humans to strike prey from a safer distance. The simplest form is the fire-hardened wooden spear, used for thrusting at close range. The earliest direct evidence of spears comes from the mid-Pleistocene. A wooden spear tip from Clacton-on-Sea in England is about 400,000 years old, and is thought to be part of a sharpened wooden spear made by Homo heidelbergensis. More spectacular are the eight wooden spears from SchΓΆningen, Germany, dated to 300,000–337,000 years ago, found among butchered horse remains. These well-balanced, pointed sticks (over 2 meters long) were likely used by Heidelbergensis or early Neanderthals to hunt large game; their craftsmanship suggests they could be javelin-like throwing spears as well as thrusting weapons.

Stone-tipped spears – composite weapons mounting a knapped stone point on a wooden shaft – appear soon after. At Kathu Pan 1 in South Africa, excavators found stone points ~500,000 years old with damage and wear indicative of spear use. About 13% of the 200+ points at this site show impact fractures and base modification, suggesting they were hafted onto shafts and used to stab or throw at prey. If confirmed, this pushes hafted hunting technology back to half a million years ago, implying that a common ancestor of modern humans and Neanderthals was already making complex spears. Previously, the oldest stone spearheads known were from Neanderthal contexts in Europe (~300–200 kya), so the Kathu Pan discovery was notable. Other finds support an early origin: for example, the site of Gademotta (Ethiopia) yielded possible obsidian spear points >275,000 years old, and Homo heidelbergensis at sites like Lehringen (Germany) ~125 kya left wooden lance shafts in association with elephant bones.

Key Discoveries:

  • Clacton Spear Tip (UK) – Sharpened wooden point, ~400 kya, earliest known spear tip.
  • SchΓΆningen Spears (Germany) – Eight wooden spears and a throwing stick, ~300 kya, complete hunting weapons in context.
  • Kathu Pan 1 (S. Africa) – Stone spear points with hafting traces, 500 kya, earliest composite spears.
  • Neanderthal Spear Use – Widespread evidence 300–100 kya (e.g. stone points in Europe, wooden spear at Lehringen ~125 kya), indicating regular large-game hunting by spears.

Debates and Interpretation: There is debate over how early humans used these spears – were they primarily thrusting weapons or also thrown projectiles? The SchΓΆningen spears, for instance, have a weight distribution and tapered design suggestive of javelins, leading some scholars to argue they were designed to be thrown at a distance, not just used as pikes. This would imply sophisticated hunting tactics much earlier than once assumed. However, experiments show such wooden spears could be effective at either close range or moderate distances, and wear patterns can be ambiguous. The Kathu Pan stone points have spurred significant controversy. Wilkins et al. (2012) argued that their damage confirms spear impacts, but a later analysis by Rots and Plisson (2014) questioned whether the wear is diagnostic of spear use or could result from other activities. This skepticism highlights the challenge of distinguishing spear hunting from other tool uses in deep time. Nonetheless, the consensus is that hafted spear technology was in play by the mid-Middle Pleistocene. The cognitive implications are also debated: if Homo heidelbergensis developed spears 300–500kya, it suggests considerable planning and knowledge of materials (for selecting spear wood and attaching points), narrowing the behavioral gap between these ancestors and later Homo sapiens. Some researchers posit a two-phase evolution of projectile weapons: first, the advent of hand-thrown or thrusted spears by half a million years ago; much later, truly long-range weapons (bow and arrow or spear-thrower darts) emerged with modern humans. Whether Neanderthals ever adopted mechanically propelled projectiles remains a point of contention (see below).

Bows and Arrows (Mechanical Projectile Technology)#

The bow and arrow is a composite weapon system consisting of a flexible bow (wooden stave with cord) and lightweight projectiles (arrows) tipped with sharpened points. This technology is far more complex than spears: it requires constructing a tensioned bow and fletched arrows, and represents the ability to store elastic energy for propulsion. Bows greatly extend the range and accuracy of hunting, but their components (wood, fiber, feathers) rarely survive archaeologically. As a result, evidence for early archery comes mostly from stone or bone arrowheads and wear patterns. Archaeologists generally agree that bow-and-arrow technology arose in Africa during the later Middle Stone Age, long before farming. The earliest clues are stone points and small bladelets likely used as arrow tips around 70–60 thousand years ago (kya). In Sibudu Cave (South Africa), researchers identified very small triangular stone points (~<2 cm) dating to 64,000 years ago that carry impact fractures and resin residues consistent with being shot as arrowheads. Analytical criteria (size, breakage, and distribution of wear) strongly suggest these were bow-launched, not thrown by hand or spearthrower, meeting a rigorous checklist for ancient arrows. Similarly, layers at Pinnacle Point (South Africa, ~71 kya) and Border Cave (~60 kya) have yielded microlithic segments and bone points that are argued to be components of arrows or dart tips, implying advanced projectile technology.

Concrete evidence becomes clearer in the Upper Paleolithic. Recently, a rock shelter in southern France (Grotte Mandrin) produced dozens of tiny flint points about 54,000 years old, which experimental tests identified as arrowheads used by early modern humans. This find is the oldest proof of bows and arrows in Europe, showing that Homo sapiens brought archery to the continent well before 50 kya. (Previously, the oldest European archery evidence was a set of preserved arrows ~12,000 years old from Stellmoor, Germany.) By the Early Holocene (after ~10 kya), bow-and-arrow hunting was globally common, as evidenced by finds like the Holmegaard bows (Denmark, ~8 kya) and numerous Mesolithic and later arrow shafts.

Key Discoveries:

  • Sibudu Cave (South Africa) – Backed flint and quartz arrowheads with wear and adhesive traces, 64 kya, earliest inferred bow use.
  • Pinnacle Point (South Africa) – Microlithic bladelets (Howiesons Poort industry) possibly used with bows or spear-throwers, 71 kya.
  • Grotte Mandrin (France) – Flint arrow points in H. sapiens layer, 54 kya, earliest European bow-and-arrow evidence.
  • Multiple Later Sites – E.g. Blombos Cave (SA, ~73 kya) yielded a possible bone arrow point, Kontrebandiers Cave (Morocco, ~90 kya) yielded small points (contested as arrow tips), and Stellmoor (Germany, ~12 kya) preserved actual wooden arrows, confirming widespread archery by the Late Glacial.

Debates and Interpretation: Establishing the presence of bows in deep prehistory relies on indirect evidence, so scholarly debate centers on the correct interpretation of stone points. One controversy is distinguishing arrowheads from spearheads or thrown darts – generally, arrowheads are smaller, lighter, and often show impact damage indicating high-velocity strike. Critics caution that small points could also be spear tips for hunting small game with spear-throwers (atlatls) rather than bows. For instance, the African evidence ~70 kya could indicate either technology; indeed, some researchers propose that H. sapiens of that era had projectile weapons but whether they were bows or atlatls remains uncertain. However, the consensus leans toward bow use by ~70–60kya in Africa, given the tiny size of some points and specific fracture patterns. Another debate is whether Neanderthals ever developed bow-and-arrow technology. To date, no clear evidence of Neanderthal archery has been found. Neanderthal sites lack the small specialized points, and their known hunting weapons were hand-thrown spears. This disparity has fed hypotheses that archery (along with spear-throwers) gave modern humans a competitive edge in hunting efficiency, possibly aiding H. sapiens in outcompeting Neanderthals in Europe. Some caution that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence – Neanderthals might have occasionally used simple bows that left no trace – but prevailing views hold that bows and arrows were an innovation of modern humans. The topic continues to be refined with new findings, like the Mandrin discovery reinforcing how early H. sapiens mastered complex projectile technology in parallel on different continents.

Woodworking Tools and Implements#

Beyond hunting, early Homo made tools for woodworking and even constructed built structures, reflecting complex behavior in tool use and planning. “Woodworking tools” here refers both to tools used to work wood (stone axes, adzes, chisels, etc.) and to the crafted wooden objects themselves (digging sticks, structural timbers). Wood is perishable, so evidence is sparse, but exceptional sites show that hominins were shaping wood very early. The earliest known wood artifact is a roughly 780,000-year-old plank fragment from Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel, likely modified by Homo erectus or heidelbergensis. By the Middle Pleistocene, multiple examples of woodworking appear. At Kalambo Falls (Zambia), a waterlogged site yielded wooden tools and timbers dated to 476,000 years ago – including two massive logs that had been notched and fit together, apparently to form a raised wooden structure. This remarkable find (published in 2023) suggests that a Homo heidelbergensis-grade species joined and shaped wood to build a platform or walkway half a million years ago. The logs show deliberate carpentry: one log was gouged with a notch, and the other was shaped to interlock as a support, preventing movement. Such construction implies planning, suitable tools (likely large stone handaxes used as adzes or wedges), and possibly a semi-sedentary campsite. Kalambo Falls also preserved wooden digging sticks and a wedge from layers ~390,000 years old, and even in the 1960s excavations, a pointed wood object (likely a digging stick) was found. These tools were likely used to excavate edible roots or tubers and to work other materials.

Neanderthals, too, were adept woodworkers. The site of Poggetti Vecchi in Italy (dated ~171,000 years ago, early Neanderthal period) contained dozens of wooden implements, wonderfully preserved in peaty soil. Most were stout boxwood digging sticks about 1 meter long, with one end rounded as a handle and the other end tapered to a blunt point. Cut marks and striations on these sticks show they were shaped with stone tools, and importantly, many have superficial charring, indicating controlled use of fire to assist in wood shaping. Neanderthal artisans likely charred the wood to soften it, then scraped off bark and shaped the sticks – a technique still used by traditional woodworkers to harden points or remove knots. These Poggetti Vecchi sticks were probably used for foraging (digging up roots, tubers, or insects) and possibly hunting small game, demonstrating systematic wood tool production. Elsewhere, Neanderthals also made thrusting spears from wood (as noted) and occasionally other wooden tools; for example, a possible wooden handle was reported from the site of Abric Romani (Spain), and a 50,000-year-old carved wooden artifact (function uncertain) was found at Molodova (Ukraine).

Early Homo sapiens expanded woodworking with new tools. The ground and polished stone axes of Late Pleistocene humans (e.g. Australia and Japan, ~40–35 kya, discussed above) were almost certainly used for heavy woodworking tasks like felling trees or hollowing logs. Wear analysis on some African Middle Stone Age tools (e.g. large Acheulean handaxes and later picks) shows traces of wood cutting and carving, suggesting that even without formal “axes,” humans were employing stone tools to produce wooden equipment. In East Asia, a recent discovery in China (Guangxi region) reported perforated stone “adzes” from ~45 kya that might have been hafted and used to chop wood, though such finds are rare. By the Upper Paleolithic (~30–20 kya), people in Europe were regularly crafting objects in wood, from spears and atlatl shafts to likely household items, but again preservation is limited (often we know of them from depictions in art or indirect wear marks on stone tools).

Key Discoveries:

  • Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (Israel) – Polished plank fragment, ∼780 kya, possible wooden structure or tool (oldest wood use).
  • Kalambo Falls (Zambia) – Notched and joined logs (structural timber) and wooden tools (wedge, digging stick), 476–300 kya, very early carpentry by H. heidelbergensis.
  • SchΓΆningen (Germany) – Shaped wooden spears and a throwing stick, 300 kya, indicates complex carving (also hints at tool use to create them).
  • Poggetti Vecchi (Italy) – Fire-hardened boxwood digging sticks, 171 kya, made by Neanderthals with stone tools + fire.
  • Early H. sapiens sites – e.g. Sunghir (Russia) ~30 kya preserved shafts, Clacton (UK) ~400 kya showed fire-hardening on wood; numerous Upper Paleolithic representations of wooden tool use.
  • Ground Axes (global) – e.g. Australia 49 kya and Japan 38 kya: these stone axes imply sophisticated woodworking (tree felling, canoe making, etc.) in those regions.

Debates and Interpretation: Discoveries like Kalambo Falls have rewritten the narrative of early humans as purely nomadic scavengers – instead, even half a million years ago, some groups were investing effort in constructing stable structures and tools, which indicates longer occupation of sites and forward planning. One debate arising from this is just how cognitively and culturally advanced these early humans were. Some scholars argue that evidence of woodworking and fire-use in toolmaking (as at Poggetti Vecchi) shows a degree of foresight and skill approaching that of modern humans. Others caution against over-interpretation: simple wooden structures or tools might not require fully modern cognition and could have been invented independently by different groups under environmental pressure. There is also an ongoing taphonomic debate – since wood rarely survives, are we underestimating its role in Paleolithic technologies? Almost certainly yes: stone tools may be just a fraction of the toolkit, with perishable wood implements missing from most sites. For example, the fact that handaxes were abundant in Acheulean sites suggests woodworking was one of their major uses (chopping wood or shaping wooden tools), even if we seldom find the worked wood itself. In summary, new finds continue to push back the timeline of hominin woodworking and even building construction, highlighting that the technological repertoire of early Homo was richer than stone artifacts alone suggest.

Symbolic and Artistic Tools#

Members of the genus Homo not only made tools for subsistence, but by the mid-Pleistocene they also created objects with symbolic or aesthetic purposes. These include engraved artifacts, pigment applicators, personal ornaments, and other items whose primary function was communicative or decorative rather than utilitarian – effectively, the “tools” of art and symbolism. Identifying symbolic behavior in deep time is contentious, but several discoveries point to surprisingly ancient origins for this facet of culture. The earliest known abstract engraving in the archaeological record is attributed to Homo erectus: a shell from Trinil (Java, Indonesia) incised with a deliberate zig-zag pattern, dated between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. This shell (a Pseudodon freshwater mussel) was originally collected by EugΓ¨ne Dubois and reexamined by Joordens et al. in 2014. Microscopic analysis confirmed the straight-line zigzag was cut with a sharp tool, not a result of animal activity or damage. The engraving’s purpose is unknown – it could be art for art’s sake or have served as a mark – but its existence “rewrites human history,” showing that H. erectus (long thought incapable of symbolism) made geometric designs half a million years ago. This find pushed back the oldest known engravings by hundreds of thousands of years. Previously, the oldest were objects like engraved ochre blocks from Blombos Cave (~75 kya) and incised bones or shells ~100 kya associated with early H. sapiens or Neanderthals. The Trinil shell stands as evidence that the cognitive foundations for art may date to our common ancestor with erectus.

By the later Middle Paleolithic, clear examples of symbolism appear among Neanderthals and early modern humans. At Cueva de los Aviones in Spain, archaeologists found perforated seashell beads and lumps of pigment (red and yellow ochre) in layers dated to 115,000–120,000 years ago – long before modern humans entered Europe. These shells (mostly marine mollusks) were intentionally colored with pigment and have holes suggesting they were strung as necklaces or pendants. According to Joao ZilhΓ£o and colleagues, who reported them, “The Aviones finds are the oldest such objects of personal ornamentation known anywhere in the world.” They predate the earliest African beadwork by 20–40 thousand years, strongly implying Neanderthals made them. In the same vein, Neanderthals at Krapina (Croatia) ~130 kya modified eagle talons with cut-marks and polish, likely to use as claws on a necklace or jewelry piece – another instance of symbolic adornment often attributed to them. Perhaps the most striking are the recently dated cave paintings in Spain: red-painted symbols (lines, dots, hand stencils) on cave walls at several sites (La Pasiega, Maltravieso, Ardales) have minimum ages of 64,000 years by uranium-series dating of overlying calcite. If these dates are accurate, the paintings must have been made by Neanderthals, since modern humans were not yet in Europe. This would firmly establish Neanderthals as the first cave artists. The claim, published in 2018, is debated (see below), but it aligns with other evidence of Neanderthal symbolic capacities.

Meanwhile, in Africa and the Near East, early Homo sapiens produced a range of symbolic artifacts starting around 100,000 years ago or earlier. Examples include the engraved ochre plaques from Blombos Cave (South Africa), dated to 75–100 kya. These ochre pieces bear cross-hatched incised patterns and are widely regarded as deliberate abstract art or notation. Blombos also yielded marine shell beads (Nassarius snail shells with perforations and wear) around 70–75 kya, indicating personal ornaments. Other North African sites like Taforalt and Contrebandiers Cave (Morocco) have similar beads ~80–110 kya. In the Levant, the Skhul and Qafzeh caves (Israel) produced shells with holes and pigment, dated ~100–135 kya, interpreted as early modern human pendants. By ~40–50 kya (the Upper Paleolithic revolution), symbolic artifacts become abundant – elaborate cave paintings, carved figurines (e.g. ivory animals and the Lion Man of Hohlenstein-Stadel ~40 kya), musical instruments (bone flutes ~40 kya), and diverse personal ornaments and decorative tools are found across Eurasia. But the focus here is on the earliest glimmers of such behavior, which intriguingly involve archaic humans as well.

Key Discoveries:

  • Trinil Shell Engraving (Java) – Geometric zigzag incised on mollusk shell, 430–540 kya, made by Homo erectus.
  • Bilzingsleben (Germany) – Possible engraved elephant bone with cross-hatch marks, ~370 kya, attributed to H. heidelbergensis (though contested as natural).
  • Cueva de los Aviones (Spain) – Painted and perforated shell beads with ochre, 115 kya, Neanderthal personal ornaments.
  • Krapina Eagle Talons (Croatia) – Eight eagle claws with cut-marks, 130 kya, likely strung by Neanderthals as jewelry.
  • Spanish Cave Art (various sites) – Red ochre cave paintings (abstract shapes, hand prints), β‰₯64 kya, claim Neanderthal authorship.
  • Blombos Cave Ochre and Beads (South Africa) – Engraved ochre blocks and shell beads, 75–80 kya, among earliest H. sapiens symbolic artifacts.
  • Other early symbols: Engraved ostrich eggshell containers (Diepkloof, SA, ~60 kya), carved bone awls and possibly pigment “crayons” (various MSA sites), and widespread use of ochre pigments (e.g. Pinnacle Point, SA, ~164 kya evidence of ochre processing likely for symbolic or cosmetic use).

Debates and Interpretation: The capacity for symbolic thought – often seen as a hallmark of modern human behavior – is hotly debated in paleoanthropology. The evidence above has fueled a reassessment of Neanderthals and even H. erectus. Many researchers now argue that Neanderthals were cognitively indistinguishable from early modern humans in this regard. The perforated shells and possibly their cave art suggest independent invention of symbolic culture, not mere borrowing from modern humans. If so, the roots of symbolism may lie in our common ancestor ~500kya, meaning that the mental ability for art and notation was latent long before it blossomed. Others urge caution. Skeptics of the Neanderthal cave art point out that dating cave minerals gives a minimum age, but attributing the art to Neanderthals vs. anatomically modern humans (AMH) requires certainty that AMH were absent – while 64k is before widespread AMH in Europe, some argue for an earlier AMH presence or that the dating might reflect an older mineral layer, not the art itself. There is also the perennial question: what counts as “art” or symbolic use? For example, the Trinil shell engraving – is it truly purposeful art, or a doodle without meaning? Even its discoverers confess they “have no clue about the meaning or purpose”. In the absence of context, we cannot know if an erectus scratched the shell out of boredom or ritual. Similarly, ochre pieces could be used as pigment for practical body camouflage or tanning hides, rather than body paint for symbolism – functional versus symbolic use is debated. The majority view, however, is that by ~100k years ago (and possibly earlier) hominins were consistently using materials in non-utilitarian, symbolic ways: wearing ornaments, creating abstractions, and engaging in artistic behavior that does not directly help survival. The fact that the oldest known personal ornaments in the world come from Neanderthal contexts in Spain (~115kya) is especially striking – it challenges the old notion of a “human revolution” occurring suddenly ~50kya. Instead, the emergence of symbolic tools appears to have been gradual, with key milestones achieved by different Homo lineages over hundreds of millennia, and ongoing debate about who innovated what and when.

Other Composite and Multipiece Tools (Harpoons, Spear-Throwers, etc.)#

Early humans also developed a variety of other complex tools that involved multiple components or mechanical principles, beyond the categories above. Two notable classes are complex hunting weapons like harpoons and spear-throwers, and advanced toolkits involving microliths and adhesives.

Harpoons and Fishing Tools: By the late Middle Stone Age, humans were crafting sophisticated fishing weapons. One remarkable find comes from Katanda (Semliki River), Democratic Republic of Congo, where several barbed bone harpoon points were excavated in layers about 90,000 years old. Carved from animal bone, these points have multiple barbs along the shaft and a socketed base, designed to detach on impact – a complex, specialized design for spearing large fish. Indeed, fossil catfish remains of massive size were found alongside, indicating these harpoons were used to catch 5-foot (~1.5 m), ~68 kg catfish in ancient African lakes. The Katanda harpoons are often cited as evidence of early modern humans’ capacity for complex subsistence strategies, as they imply not just toolmaking skill but planning of group fishing expeditions and knowledge of seasonal aquatic resources. In Eurasia, harpoons appear later (e.g. the Upper Paleolithic Magdalenian culture, ~15 kya, left many barbed antler harpoons for fishing and hunting waterfowl), but the African example shows a much earlier origin. Another related invention is the fishing hook: while not as early, the oldest known hooks (made of shell) come from East Timor ~16–23 kya and Okinawa, Japan ~23 kya, illustrating independent invention of multi-part fishing tackle (hook + line) by Late Pleistocene humans.

Spear-Throwers (Atlatls): A spear-thrower is a handheld launching device that extends the arm, allowing a spear or dart to be thrown with greater force and distance. It usually consists of a rigid rod with a hooked end that engages a light spear (dart). This is a true composite tool: one must craft the thrower and matching darts, and often weights or fittings are added. Archaeological evidence of atlatls is tricky, since they’re often wood or bone and can be simple in form. The earliest direct evidence comes from the European Upper Paleolithic. Carved artifacts identified as spear-thrower hooks or handles are known from Solutrean sites in France, ~18–20 kya, and especially from the Magdalenian period (~15 kya), where decorative atlatls (often sculpted from antler with animal figures) have been found. However, indirect evidence suggests that spear-throwers may have existed earlier. As mentioned, the appearance of tiny stone points ~70 kya in Africa could imply mechanically propelled darts. In Australia, some researchers have argued that certain stone points ~40 kya were spear-thrower darts rather than arrows, as bows might not have been used there until later. A recent study of lithic points from Le Placard (France) proposed that some were atlatl-launched darts ~17 kya, pushing back the assumed use in Europe by a few thousand years. Overall, while the timeline is murky, it is likely that Homo sapiens developed spear-throwers by the late Pleistocene (perhaps ~30–20 kya globally), giving hunters a big advantage in range. This aligns with Curtis Marean’s hypothesis of a “two-step” projectile revolution: stone-tipped spears first, and later spear-throwers or bows to extend range. The spear-thrower technology, like the bow, is credited exclusively to modern humans – no evidence suggests Neanderthals used it. In fact, the proliferation of atlatls in Upper Paleolithic Europe (where dozens of artifacts and even cave art depictions exist) after 20 kya is considered one factor that enabled more efficient big-game hunting at the end of the Ice Age.

Microlithic Composite Tools: Another category of complex implements are those made by hafting multiple small sharp flakes (microliths) into a handle to form an edge or a serrated weapon. This innovation appears in Africa by ~70 kya (Howieson’s Poort industry) and later around the world. For example, backed bladelet segments were hafted side by side in slots to create cutting tools (analogous to a primitive saw or sickle) or as barbs on projectiles. While not “tools” in the singular sense, these composite arrangements show advanced planning – making standardized small pieces to configure into various implements. One famous instance is the composite spear point from Border Cave, South Africa (~44 kya), where multiple tiny flakes were glued with resin onto a wood shaft to form a single lethal point. This kind of modular design heralds the engineering approach of later technologies.

Adhesives and Binders: Underpinning many composite tools is the use of glues and bindings to join parts. The invention of adhesive is itself a complex technological achievement, effectively creating a new material. The oldest known adhesive is birch-bark tar, which Neanderthals manufactured as early as 200,000 years ago in Europe. Lumps of birch tar with tool impressions were found at Campitello Quarry, Italy (~200 kya), and at two German sites (KΓΆnigsaue ~40 kya and perhaps earlier). Producing tar from birch bark originally seemed to require an oxygen-free distillation process (digging a clay pit, heating bark, etc.), which was taken as evidence of Neanderthal ingenuity. Some recent experiments suggest simpler methods (burning bark near flat stones) could also yield tar, spurring debate on how “complex” the process was. Nonetheless, the presence of adhesives on stone tools is direct evidence of hafting: Neanderthals routinely used glues to mount spear points and handles by at least 100–200 kya. Compound adhesives (mixing tar with beeswax or ochre) have also been identified in Later Stone Age H. sapiens contexts, indicating continual improvement in glue recipes. The mastery of binding materials (plant fibers for cordage, sinew, hide straps) would have gone hand-in-hand, allowing things like multi-piece snares, trapping nets, or hafted stone axes to be bound firmly.

Key Examples:

  • Katanda Barbed Harpoons (DRC) – Bone harpoon heads, ~90 kya, multi-barb points for fishing.
  • Bone Points with Barbs (Africa) – E.g. Blombos Cave ~73 kya (single-piece points that might be spear or arrow tips, some with lateral grooves possibly for barbs).
  • Earliest Spear-Throwers (Europe) – Carved antler atlatl hooks, ~20–17 kya, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures.
  • Atlatl Weights (Americas) – Though later (Archaic Americas ~10 kya), show independent development of enhancing spear-thrower design.
  • Microlith Composite Blades – Howiesons Poort (SA, 65–60 kya) and later Upper Paleolithic industries globally, indicating multi-part tool assembly.
  • Birch Tar Adhesive (Italy) – Glue on flint flakes, ~200 kya, earliest synthetic adhesive.
  • Compound Tools in Cave Art – E.g. Sahara rock art (~8kya) shows hafted sickles; European cave paintings (~15kya) depict atlatl use, reflecting the material culture.

Debates: These other complex tools often attract debate about innovation versus diffusion. For instance, were bone harpoons independently invented in Africa and later in Europe, or did the idea spread? The 90kya African harpoons are so early that if there was any influence, it would have to be via modern human expansion much later. Most likely, different environments spurred separate inventions – fishing in Ice Age Europe became important only after humans had the skillset from general spear hunting. Spear-thrower origins are similarly debated: physical evidence is clearest in Europe, but did Upper Paleolithic Europeans invent it, or was it brought from elsewhere? Since Australian Aboriginal cultures had atlatls (the woomera) in more recent times (though unclear when adopted), and some indirect hints exist in Asia, some anthropologists propose that the spear-thrower could have been invented more than once. Another point of discussion is the line between spear-thrower darts and arrows – their stone points can be similar, so distinguishing atlatl vs bow in archaeological contexts remains challenging without associated hardware.

Finally, the role of adhesives has prompted intriguing debate about cognitive complexity. Some scholars argued that birch tar production proved Neanderthals had complex, multistep planning (a cognitively demanding task) – almost a mental fossil of ingenuity. But when a simpler method to get tar was demonstrated, others argued this knowledge might have been discovered by trial and error rather than extensive forward planning. Thus, while composite tools unquestionably indicate higher order skills, researchers continue to examine whether each instance required a “modern” level of cognition or could arise from iterative simple improvements. Regardless, the cumulative evidence of multipiece tool technologies – from half-million-year-old handles and glues to tens-of-thousands-year-old bows and harpoons – paints a picture of steadily increasing complexity. These innovations highlight the creative problem-solving of Homo in meeting survival challenges, foreshadowing the technological profusion that would come with fully modern humans.

FAQ#

Q: What makes a tool “complex” in archaeological terms? A: Complex tools involve multiple components (like a stone axe head hafted to a wooden handle), sophisticated manufacturing techniques (like controlled adhesive production), or mechanical principles (like the elastic energy storage in bows). They go beyond simple stone flakes or hand-held implements.

Q: Why are hafted axes from Australia so significant? A: The 46,000-49,000 year old Australian axes are the world’s oldest known hafted axes, predating similar tools in Africa and Europe by tens of thousands of years. This challenges the assumption that complex technologies always originated in Africa or Europe first.

Q: Did Neanderthals really make complex tools comparable to modern humans? A: Yes, Neanderthals made sophisticated tools including birch-tar adhesives (200,000 years ago), composite spears, fire-hardened wooden implements, and possibly symbolic artifacts. Recent evidence suggests their cognitive abilities were much closer to modern humans than previously thought.

Q: How can archaeologists distinguish between arrows and spear points? A: Arrows are typically smaller, lighter (under 2cm), show specific high-velocity impact fractures, and often have residues from hafting with bow technology. Spear points are larger, may show different wear patterns, and are found in contexts lacking the tiny standardized points characteristic of archery.

Q: What role did adhesives play in early tool technology? A: Adhesives like birch-tar were crucial for hafting - attaching stone points to wooden shafts or handles. This technology, mastered by Neanderthals 200,000 years ago, enabled the creation of composite tools that were far more effective than hand-held implements alone.

Sources#

  1. Langley, Michelle C., et al. “Aegypt UniversitΓ€t Leipzig Archaeological Evidence for Hafted Cutting Tools in Australia.” Journal of Archaeological Science 101 (2019): 12-28.

  2. Thieme, Hartmut. “Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany.” Nature 385 (1997): 807-810.

  3. Wilkins, Jayne, et al. “Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology.” Science 338 (2012): 942-946.

  4. Backwell, Lucinda, et al. “Early hominid bone tools from Drimolen, South Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008): 2880-2894.

  5. Wadley, Lyn. “Compound‐Adhesive Manufacture as a Behavioral Proxy for Complex Cognition in the Middle Stone Age.” Current Anthropology 51 (2010): S111-S119.

  6. Joordens, Josephine C.A., et al. “Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving.” Nature 518 (2015): 228-231.

  7. ZilhΓ£o, JoΓ£o, et al. “Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals 115,000 years ago.” Science Advances 4 (2018): eaar5255.

  8. Barham, Lawrence, et al. “Evidence for the earliest structural use of wood at least 476,000 years ago.” Nature 622 (2023): 107-111.

  9. Villa, Paola, and Will Roebroeks. “Neandertal demise: an archaeological analysis of the modern human superiority complex.” PLOS ONE 9 (2014): e96424.

  10. Hardy, Bruce L., et al. “Direct evidence of Neanderthal fibre technology and its cognitive and behavioral implications.” Scientific Reports 10 (2020): 4889.